The theory of direct perception
Question 1 (choose one of the options for 3 mark)
What is an affordance, according to Gibson (1986)?
(A) It is the process of analysing visual information and thinking of the best
course of action
(B) It is a possibility for action
(C) It is the information we use for self-perception
(D) It is a quality of an object or environment
Question 2 (choose one of the options for 3 mark)
According to the theory of direct perception what constitutes visual
information?
(A) Structure in the light, optic arrays, memory constructs
(B) Representations, invariant properties
(C) Invariant properties of objects, optic arrays, structure in the light
reaching the retina
(D) Visual representations, optic arrays, memory structures
Question 3 (choose one of the options for 3 mark)
What is the speed-accuracy trade-off (Fitts & Posner, 1976)?
(A) The faster and more accurate a person is, the more they can trade off
(B) Speed increments come at the cost of accuracy and accuracy
increments come at the cost of speed
(C) Faster movements are less precise than slower movements
(D) Moving faster can make you more accurate
Question 4 (choose one of the options for 3 mark)
Imagine that an airplane loses the motors and the pilots need to decide
whether they can make it back to the airport. When they look at the
airport tower it appears to descend on their field of view. This means
that:
(A) They can make it to the airport
(B) They cannot make it to the airport
(C) They still can’t know whether they can make it to the airport
(D) The people in the tower can’t know whether the plane will make it to the
airport
Question 5 (choose one of the options for 3 mark)
Someone throws you a ball and it appears to be rising in your field of
2
view. This means that:
(A) You need to run backwards
(B) You need to run forwards
(C) You need to stay where you are
(D) You can’t know whether to run backwards or forwards
Question 6 (write a short answer for 7 marks)
Please write a definition of learning using your own words. Add the full reference
of the book or article you used in that definition.
Answer:
Question 7 (write a short answer for 7 marks)
There are at least 9 ways in which learning can be recognised or measured.
Please name 5 and explain them.
Answer:
Question 8 (write a short answer for 7 marks)
What does “freezing and freeing degrees of freedom” refer to? You may need to
search the authors Bernstein or Vereijken to get to the correct answer.
Answer:
Question 9 (write a short answer for 7 marks)
What is falsifiability and why is it crucial for science? The relevant author for the
answer is Karl Popper. Be very careful to understand it well as it may seem
counterintuitive at first.
Answer:
Question 10 (write a short answer for 9 marks)
Give the full reference of two scientific articles written by two of your lecturers at
LSBU. The references should be in the style format used in the Journal of Sports
Sciences. For help with this you can ask at the Library or use the “reading sheet”
on the module’s Moodle site. You may also need to look up the surnames of your
lecturers…
3
Answer:
Question 11 (write a half-page answer for 20 marks)
Using LSBU Library website, find the following article: Davids, K., & Baker, J.
(2007). Genes, environment and sport performance: Why the nature-nurture
dualism is no longer relevant. Sports Medicine, 37(11), XXX-XXX
(a) Complete the reference with the page numbers.
Answer: Davids, K., & Baker, J. (2007). Genes, environment and sport performance:
Why the nature-nurture dualism is no longer relevant. Sports Medicine, 37(11), XXX-XXX
(b) Using this and other scientific papers explain using your own words what is
the “relative age effect” and why it is a problem.
Answer:
-what it is
-why is it a problem
Question 12 (write a half-page answer for 28 marks)
Some people may think that for an athlete to develop into elite in sports such as
soccer or swimming, they need to participate in international competitions
during their development. Using LSBU Library website, search for an
experimental article that has studied this topic.
(a) Describe this article using your own words.
Answer:
(b) Add the complete reference of the article you chose.
Answer:
End of Section A
4
SECTION B
Question 1 (choose one of the options for 6 marks)
According to Gibbs (1988), how many stages does the reflective cycle
have?
(A) The reflective cycle have 3 stages
(B) The reflective cycle have 4 stages
(C) The reflective cycle have 6 stages
(D) The reflective cycle have 7 stages
Question 2 (choose one of the options for 6 marks)
What is reflective practice according to Knowles et al. (2007)?
(A) A form of analysis, a process of evaluation and an improvement tool to
help produce a change in practice
(B) A form of coaching, a process of teaching and an improvement tool to
theory and practice
(C) A process of practice and a tool to help produce a change in theory
(D) A form of coaching, a process of performing and an improvement tool to
help produce a change in championships
Question 3 (write a short answer for 7 marks)
Please identify the stages of the reflective cycle according to Gibbs (1988).
Answer:
Question 4 (write a short answer for 7 marks)
According to Ames (1992), to promote a mastery motivational climate, which
TARGET structures should be manipulated by the teacher/coach?
Answer:
Question 5 (write a short answer for 7 marks)
Explain what is “blocked practice”.
Answer:
Question 6 (write a short answer for 7 marks)
Explain what is “constant practice”.
Answer:
5
Question 7 (write a half-page answer for 30 marks)
Using the LSBU Library website, find the following article: Knowles, Z., Tyler, G.,
Gilbourne, D., & Eubank, M. (2006). Reflecting on reflection: exploring the
practice of sports coaching graduates. Reflective Practice, 7(2), 163-169.
(a) Using this and other scientific papers explain using your own words what is
the “reflective practice” and what are some of the challenges that coaches find in
their practice regarding the use of reflective practice.
Answer:
-what it is
-why is it a problem
Question 8 (write a half-page answer for 30 marks)
Using LSBU Library website, conduct a search for an experimental scientific
article written in English, about Small-Sided Games Training.
(a) Describe this article using your own words.
Answer:
(b) Add the complete reference of the article you chose.
Answer:
End of Section B
Solution
Section A
1. An Affordance, according to Gibson (1986)
It is a possibility for action
2. According to the theory of direct perception, visual information constitutes
Representations, invariant properties
3. The speed-accuracy tradeoff (Fitts& Posner, 1976)
Speed increments come at the cost of accuracy and accuracy increments come at the cost
of speed
4. When an airplane loses the motors and the pilots need to decide whether they can
make it back to the airport. When they look at the airport tower it appears to
descend on their field of view. This means that:
They cannot make it to the airport
5. Someone throws you a ball and it appears to be rising in your field of view. This
means that
You need to run backwards
6. A definition of learning using your own words. Add the full reference of the book or
article you used in that definition.
Learning is the process which individual acquire information, skill and behavior, it also
involves reflecting new knowledge and insight about something.
Reference: Accessibility, Accessibility, and Tom Cheek. "Definition of Learning."
<http://learn1.open.ac.uk/mod/oublog/viewpost.php?post=158444>
7. Five ways in which learning can be recognized or measured.
ASSIGNMENT
Learning can be recognized by the following ways; firstly, by practicing to do what is
learnt, for example, if students are expected to apply ideas in a research situation, then they must
practice applying them in the correct way. Secondly, measure of performance whereby a student
respond well if learning objective is achieved, for example student will be able to solving
equations in a mathematics classroom. Thirdly, learning can also be recognized through reward
in place where creativity and invention is properly applied by the student. Fourthly, through clear
objective expression; the teacher is able to recognize if learning is achieved through observing
the students ways of expression. Lastly, learning can be measured through assessment whereby
the teacher gives judgment or opinion about something.
8. Freezing and freeing degrees of freedom refer to
The kinematic analysis of the limb and torso motions showed at the outset of learning. As
a result subjects froze many of the joint segments of the whole body. However, with subsequent
practice, subjects introduced an active motion at the ankle, knee, and hip joints in a fashion
consistent with the freeing degrees of freedom.
9. Falsifiability and why is it crucial for science
According to Karl Popper's, Falsifiability concern the problem of demarcation of
scientific terms from unscientific terms with. Popper stresses that what is unfalsifiable is
classified as unscientific, and the practice of declaring an unfals in arguing for the in
commensurability of rival scientific paradigms whereby ideas are reintroduced such that they
bring a change in science that is essentially dialectical and is dependent upon the establishment
of consensus within communities of researchers.
10. Two scientific articles written by two lecturers at LSBU
ASSIGNMENT
Blewitt, J., & Cullingford, C. (2013). The sustainability curriculum: the challenge for higher
education. Earthscan.
Newton, J. (2014). Can a university be a ‘healthy university’? An analysis of the concept and an
exploration of its operationalisation through two case studies (Doctoral dissertation,
London South Bank University).
11. Using LSBU Library website, finding the article:
(a) Complete reference, with the page numbers.
Davids, K., & Baker, J. (2007). Genes, environment and sport performance. Sports medicine,
37(11), 961-980.
b) What is the “relative age effect” and why it is a problem.
According to Davids and Baker (2007), Relative Age Effect is the immediate and long
term consequences that affect participation and selection in youth sport. The article investigates
the performance level at which birth date effects selection for performance pathways in games,
as well as examining whether coaches are currently implementing arrangements to limit the
relative age effect.. The birth dates of each player within every performance level were analyzed
through the use of statistical tools; with interviews analyzed through transcription and the
highlighting of recurrent themes. The sub-groups were viewed by age group, month of birth and
the total percentage of players born within each quartile of the selection year to analyze the birth
bias within specific performance levels. The statistical data for each sub-group were then
collated to view differences in progressing through each performance level. The result indicates
that that birth date only has a significant impact on the selection once the standard of play is
ASSIGNMENT
reached, with minimal difference in impact when progressing through inferior performance
levels. Coaches play a role in the awareness of the effect, with the implementation of two
strategies to reduce the relative age effect being implemented.
12. Some people may think that for an athlete to develop into elite in sports such as soccer
or swimming, they need to participate in international competitions during their
development. Using LSBU Library website, search for an experimental article that has
studied this topic.
According to the article athlete development into elite is seen as a continuous process,
which starts at the first time an athlete engages in a sport until the time an athlete withdraws
themselves from the sport. Athlete development involves the progression of steps that athletes
must travel through to fully develop their talents; including athlete identification, athlete
selection, and interaction with support services. Talent Identification and development have been
employed across the globe in an attempt to maximize the potential of producing elite athletes.
The premise for the development of athletes are based on assumptions that international success
in senior elite sport is the result of long-term linear careers in one sport discipline; that success
increases with extended duration of training and competition practice in this sport; and that early
training onset, early success, early participation, and continuation in promotion programs will
stimulate the development process and correlate positively with long-term success in senior elite
sport.
ASSIGNMENT
(b) Reference of the article
Allen, M. S., & Jones, M. V. (2014). The “home advantage” in athletic competitions. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 48-53.
Section B
1. According to Gibbs (1988), the reflective cycle have;
The reflective cycle have 6 stages
2. Reflective practice according to Knowles et al. (2007)
A form of analysis, a process of evaluation and an improvement tool to help produce a
change in practice
3. The stages of the reflective cycle, according to Gibbs (1988).
The stages of reflective cycle include; the description of what happened, the next stage
involves the feelings of an individual, followed by evaluation of what is good or bad about
certain experience, then analysis of the situation. The other stage is conclusion stage, lastly the
action plan stage.
4. According to Ames (1992), to promote a mastery motivational climate, the target
structures should be manipulated by the teacher/coach will be;
ASSIGNMENT
The self-referenced goals which are designed for variety, individual challenge, and active
involvement; in this situation, cooperation is encouraged more than competition. Students in
these situations develop a sense of their own competence that is not dependent upon social
norms, and there is less opportunity for social comparison. Consequently, students in mastery
climates tend to develop a task orientation. Conversely, students in performance climates tend to
work on a common task, usually in a competitive environment, where success is considered to be
based on ability comparisons,
5. Blocked practice is;
A practice where individuals rehearse the same skill over and over until some
improvement is seen the practice is commonly done with skill drills where players practice a
single skill numerous times before moving on to the next drill.
6. Constant practice is
A practice sequence in which, the same skills are repeated under the same conditions
from one repetition to another.
7. According Knowles, Z., Tyler, G., Gilbourne, D.,& Eubank, M. (2006). Reflecting on
reflection: exploring the practice of sports coaching graduates. Reflective Practice,
7(2), 163-169.
(a) What is the reflective practice and what are some of the challenges that coaches find
in their practice regarding the use of reflective practice.
The concept of reflective practice is a critical process in refining individuals’ artistry or
craft in a specific discipline usually applied to beginners in a discipline to recognize consonance
ASSIGNMENT
between their own individual practices and those of successful practitioners. It can also be
explained as a practice that involves consideration of individuals' experiences in applying
knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline. Reflective practice
has a problem on the prevalence and usefulness of reflective practice in specific sports coaching
domains and barriers of reflection, issues regarding written techniques and reflection with others.
Reflective Practice is considered to be a very adaptable process, in addition it involves s a set of
ideas that can be used alongside many other concepts for training, learning, personal
development, and self-improvement
8. Using LSBU Library website, conduct a search for an experimental scientific article
written in English, about Small-Sided Games Training.
Small Sided Games training is practice sessions that generally involve two teams playing
a specific the following formats whereby one team is coached on a specific coaching objective,
these games may also involve floater players or support teams to achieve coaching objectives.
The article identifies that small-sided training games can present a physiological training
stimulus that are comparable. The training involves a decreasing number of players, but keeping
the field dimensions the same generally so as increases mean heart rates. Higher exercise
intensities may be seen with smaller player numbers per team due to the players. The coach
decreases the number of players because the player numbers will also affect the technical
demands per player. Balsom. The coach externally motivates the player this has been has been
shown to have the greatest influence on physiological responses during training compared to
altering player numbers and field dimensions. Small-sided training games take shorter durations
to achieve exercise intensities that elect endurance training by gradually increasing the duration.
ASSIGNMENT
(b) Reference of the article
Booroff, M., Nelson, L., & Potrac, P. (2016). A coach’s political use of video-based feedback: a
case study in elite-level academy soccer. Journal of sports sciences, 34(2), 116-124.
ASSIGNMENT
References
Allen, M. S., & Jones, M. V. (2014). The “home advantage” in athletic competitions. Current
Blewitt, J., & Cullingford, C. (2013). The sustainability curriculum: the challenge for higher
education. Earthscan.
Booroff, M., Nelson, L., & Potrac, P. (2016). A coach’s political use of video-based feedback: a
case study in elite-level academy soccer. Journal of sports sciences, 34(2), 116-124.
Davids, K., & Baker, J. (2007). Genes, environment and sport performance. Sports medicine,
37(11), 961-980.
Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 48-53.
Knowles, Z., Tyler, G., Gilbourne, D.,& Eubank, M. (2006). Reflecting on reflection:
exploring the practice of sports coaching graduates. Reflective Practice, 7(2), 163- 169.
Newton, J. (2014). Can a university be a ‘healthy university’? An analysis of the concept and an
exploration of its operationalisation through two case studies (Doctoral dissertation,
London South Bank University).
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