The objectives and hypothesis of the article:
The objective of this study is to aim at investigating two dimensions included in the organizational citizenship behavior (Citizenship behaviors directed toward individuals (OCBI) and Citizenship behaviors directed towards the organization (OCBO)) and to scrutinize how organizational citizenship behavior is connected with two aspects of job satisfaction, that are categorized as intrinsic and extrinsic. It examines how those two facets of job satisfaction affect OCBO and OCBI in the frame of reference of higher education institutes.
The hypothesis included in the article was to assess numerous aspects of employee’s reciprocity incorporating Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB). It can be defined as “gestures of goodwill” that are interchanged amongst employees and the organization coupled with subordinates and their superiors when a certain action is related to reciprocity. It also evaluates the responsibilities that are enforced by the norm of reciprocity that differs amongst various individuals within the organization.
This hypothesis demonstrates the norms of the social exchange correspondence in sustaining the state of stability between employees and the organization. Scholars have advocated that OCB are catalogued into two classifications.
The first category incorporated behaviors that are unswervingly linked with the social exchange of employees and the organization, which is, OCD directed toward the organization (OCBO). The second classification is composed of behaviors that consist of indirect influence and are directed towards individuals (OCBI).
It has been suggested that OCB is an intentional endeavor to preserve a balance between social exchange among employees and the organization, which implies that this particular action was anticipated in the benefit of the company. Thus, the prospect of a direct function is about employees who contemplate about their working features can be classified as OCBO. Contrastingly, the factor that predominantly addresses the emphases on individuals in work field can be defined as OCBI. It aids to preserve stability within the organization, by encouraging employee transactions.
The importance of the issues to the organizational behavior community:
Outcomes of this study disclose both facets (extrinsic and intrinsic) job satisfaction that are utterly consequential in forecasting citizenship behavior. OCB is an essential feature that contributes to the viability of an organization.
Subsequently, it is considered to be fundamental in comprehending the variable that considerably has a positive encouragement in engendering a satisfactory behavior within the organization. Researchers have reported that employee contentment, organizational devotion, career growth, age, character, leadership and leadership behavior altogether have an abundant influence and effect on OCB. It can be interpreted as job-related behaviors that are arbitrary which is not associated with the official organizational, but rather in endorsing an operative organization.
Moreover, OCB protrudes further than the performance that is requisite by the organization within the official job description. Thus, it has been revealed that OCB actions executed by employees who exceed the least possible role necessities anticipated by the organization and advocate of the well-being of employees, work group and the organization.
Job satisfaction provides physical and mental welfare for employees. Thus, it has a tremendous stimulus on job-related behaviors such as, efficiency, absence, turnover rated and worker relations. It also enhances the function of financial status within the organization. Therefore, comprehending job satisfaction of workers is a substantial organizational objective.
The research reported in the article, including the design of the study, the sample, the materials (stimuli) used in the study
The design of this study is to measure the two various scopes of Organizational Citizenship Behavior ( OCBI and OCBO) and to evaluate how OCD is interrelated to the two aspects of job satisfaction which are illustrated as (Intrinsic and extrinsic).
In order to achieve this methodological study, convenience was utilized with the purpose of concluding the sample. Examiners have dispensed 100 questionnaires for non-academic employees within the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM).
Surveys were distributed to various sectors, 40 questionnaires were handed to the library staff, and the other 60 forms were dispensed to economic and business department personnel.
This study consisted of self-administered questionnaire. It consisted in a bilingual form, that was, in English and Malay, in order to simplify the questions for the respondents of the survey.
Both OCBO and OCBI behaviors were quantified, in order to evaluate them, the examiners utilized fourteen items that were modified by two scholars. The item with seven was engaged to evaluate OCBO (“I take action to protect the organization from potential problems”), and the rest of the 7 items were occupied to analyze OCBI (“I help others who have been absent”).
Respondents were inquired to select each of these statements and select a scale where 1= never and 5= always. The questionnaire included the topic “Job Satisfaction” which was categorized in to two classifications of intrinsic job satisfaction and extrinsic job satisfaction.
Four items were derived from the first category that was developed to measure intrinsic job satisfaction, by utilizing the 1-5 scale respondents were inquired to manifest their level of contentment towards personal development and sense of attainment (How satisfied are you with the amount of personal growth and development in your job?”). The second category exploited nine items with the intention to measure extrinsic job satisfaction.
Respondents were inquired to specify their state of fulfilment with the relationship of job security (“How satisfied are you with the amount of job security you have in this organisation?”), relation with indemnity (“How satisfied are you with the amount of pay and fringe benefits you receive?”), and their association with employees and managers (“How satisfied are you with the degree of respect
And fair treatment you receive from your boss?”).
The key results
According to the research, the main source that the HEIs (Higher Learning Institution) want to concentrate in observing the average workers behavior and disregard trivial tasks that is related to the job description requirements.
In order to gain advantage in sustainability in the organization, the OCB would select the aspect that is associated to job satisfaction, commitment and involvement. It is fundamentally stated the HEI context, would favor in acquiring a better environment to support it, also they would rather be in a condition that is said to be high, where they will be proficient of handling both extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction. OCBI and OCBO are both included in the result.
Additionally, it has been stated that is it requisite for the HEI to assimilate in supporting OCB’s to result in a satisfactory outcome that manifests a substantial working environment and also by amplifying the status of their performances. Since both types of job satisfaction are imperative in foretelling the citizenship behaviors that HEI can benefit from. As a consequence, both variables should be performed with the advantage and encouragement employees to be strenuous in activities and in attaining more goals.
Strength and weaknesses of the study:
It has been illustrated that the study included some limitations concerning the negative trait, which is where employers are inclined to perform their duties by obeying the rules. Contrastingly, the positive aspect of this study is it can prosper the organization by demonstrating a superior image of the environment.
The initial study was encompassed of ways employees practice in achieving research objectives. That is by executing random samples such as, by increasing the generalization the findings of a research. While other studies focus on cross-sectional data. Therefore, for future researches, employees should be proficient in carrying out longitudinal approach that would aid them in contemplating and acquire a profound insight regarding a subject of the research. Variables that should be incorporated in sampling models were job commitment, job involvement, task performances, etc.
Those are some factors and abilities than can amend both OCBI and OCBO. The study has also constituted of positive and strong relationship between OCB and job satisfaction. According to the article, the strongest factors were promotions and supervision, which are considered to be two OCB scores, self-reported rate and supervision. However, the contrast amongst two scores is diminutive, because both of these aspects are meant to find the results of OCB collectively, which indicated a positive relationship between OCB and job satisfaction.
Scholars have also established a positive outcome between extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfactions associated with each of OCB steps. But other researchers have found that intrinsic satisfaction satisfies OCBO but not OCBI. While other researchers found various connections, some examiners failed to find relationships between OCB and job satisfaction due to failing experimentations that they have conducted, and by not possessing right measurements and scales that were required.
The usefulness of the results to organizational behavior practitioners
The findings of this empirical study supported organizational behavior practitioners in considering both extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction as crucial factors that contribute in enhancing the development of organization itself rather than assisting a particular individual(s).
mAs one of the results of this study states that having intrinsic job satisfaction, which means having a sense of personal growth, accomplishment and autonomy, encourages employees to contribute in developing their organization rather than just helping colleagues. Organizational behavior practitioners can use this fact to advice managers who feel their company is becoming less productive or ineffective that they must ensure that all employees have a sense of accomplishment.
Even if employees do not exert their effort competently during working times, managers must continue praising their effort in order to boost the motivation on the workers, which could eventually result in increasing effectiveness of the company. Also this truth helps organizational behavior practitioners to notify the managers that there is no relationship between the intrinsic job satisfaction and assisting individuals within an organization.
So if the managers seek for individual to help other individuals, the availability of the intrinsic job satisfaction would not be adequate, as the results have proved. The second outcome of this study indicates that employees who possess the quality of extrinsic job satisfaction, can be defines as the availability of job security and compensations, which tends to manifest in adopting a positive attitude towards their work, aiming to benefit the company itself rather than individual(s).
This result is extremely beneficial for organizational behavior practitioners; as they can assist managers to advance their organizations by advising them to grant the employees job security, high wages, promotions and fair treatment. As these factors encourage the workers to increase their efforts in the sake of achieving the objectives of their company.
Additionally, organizational behavior practitioners can review the administrators’ perspective towards the existence of positive relationship among extrinsic job satisfaction and supporting co-workers. In accordance with the outcome of the study, which proves that there is no such relationship between the two variables? Hence, if the administrators seek for individuals who can voluntarily help others, they might not believe providing extrinsic job satisfaction as a strong factor.
Marketing Behavior
The effects of unethical conduct of pharmaceutical companies on consumer behavior
Empirical evidence from Germany
The objectives and hypotheses of the article
The objective of this study is to examine how unethical commercial behavior of pharmaceutical companies influence consumer behavior of German buyers, particularly when it comes to boycotts regarding over-the-counter drugs.
This research aims to analyze the consumer research framework, which depends on each resident’s judgment concerning animal experimentation methods within the pharmaceutical companies, and whether they are virtuously right or wrong. Therefore, this study concentrates on consumer awareness regarding pharmaceutical companies that are claimed to be performing unethical conduct within the organization.
This study has three consequential categories that are focused on. Firstly, does anger deliver the foundation of boycott influence? Secondly, does the desire of boycotting emerge from perceiving immoral ethical corporate demeanor along with the corporations’ profile? Thirdly, do these concepts correlate?
In sum, this is the first paper delineating and validating a conceptual model which comprises anger, corporate image, and ethical evaluation as antecedents of boycotting behavior. In addition, this is the first empirical study on consumer boycotts of pharmaceutical companies.
The hypothesis of this journal has a myriad of classifications. It has descriptions within several aspects. Examiners were questioning whether the inclination towards boycotting is greater when the presence of increased level of answers anticipated by immoral practices within the organization.
Scholars are also evaluating that if there is an extreme level of response from consumers who would actually enhance the perceived unethical conduct on boycott objectives since individuals who undergo through stronger anger would typically overstate how much corporate behavior deviates from moral standards.
And in the interior of health-related framework, recognition of susceptibility to diseases may be one of the reasons reckoned as boycott participation. The higher vulnerability to diseases, individuals will observe themselves with a higher preference for certain pharmaceuticals. That is why if counterarguments have a direct impact on boycotting purposes towards an organization.
The importance of the issues to the marketing
Marketing departments or marketers always strive to expand the world to purchase of their products in the sake of acquiring profits. The issues addressed in this study are vital for the marketers, and are worth considering since the ignorance of these issues could cause a serious loss for the firms in terms of profit and corporate image.
As discussed in this study, pharmaceutical industries’ products such as over-the-counter drugs are threatened to face consumers’ boycott due to animal experimentation that is considered as the unethical practice of corporate by the consumers. As it has been reported in the study, over-the-counter-drugs which can be established as medicines that can be purchased without requiring doctors’ prescriptions, which are considered as the best selling products of pharmaceutical companies.
For instance, worldwide revenues for over-the-counter-drugs (OTC drugs) accounted for $72.1 billion in 2009. However, in 2010 there was a decrease in the revenues earned from OTC drugs in Germany due to consumers’ perceptions of animal testing that encouraged them to join activists’ campaign of boycott.
Hence, analyzing the reasons of boycott phenomenon is crucial for marketers since they can adopt new techniques in order to avoid or attenuate the reasons of boycott and regain the revenues that they used to earn. For example, it is been hypothesized that anger is the main motivator that leads customers to refrain from buying products from pharmaceutical companies. Thus, reporting about this issue facilitates marketers to look for effective ways that can extinguish the feeling of anger among the consumers.
The research reported in the article, including the design of the study, the sample, the materials (stimuli) used in the study
The articles approach and design constructed in the journal was elaborate and detailed. The study was developed by deriving materials from psychological and consumer theory, which advances through a theoretical model that deliberates the affective and perceptive factors of boycotting behavior. This methodological analysis only assessed within the range of German pharmaceutical subdivision, the examiners have evaluated a survey in order to substantiate the research hypotheses utilizing a mild reversion analysis.
Students who were involved in this research assisted analysts by distributing surveys personally to the sample, which the journalists have labeled the German community within the range of 18 and 65 of age. By utilizing an allotment sampling, the student subsidiaries carried out personal interviews with individuals who were suitable to the allotment criteria regarding gender and age.
During the threshold of an interview, contributors studied preliminary material regarding the pharmaceutical industries on experimenting on animals and movements that are in contradiction of these practices, containing declarations that were made to abstain from purchasing over-the-counter drugs such as, nasal sprays or anesthetics. The study is presently conducting an analysis on blockbusting over-the-counter goods in Germany.
The key results
After conducting and analyzing moderated regression analysis, the test has showed the followings: There was an approval on the relationship between anger and boycott intention. As the analysis results indicate, in accordance with hypothesis 1, that there is a remarkable and direct impact of consumers’ anger to boycott intention for perceived immorality of animal experimentation by pharmaceutical firms.
Hence, anger is considered as the primary incentive that encourages individuals to boycott the pharmaceutical industries’ products and join boycott communication (a way of convincing others to join their campaign) due to perceive them for abusing the animal rights. The former result matches with hypothesis 2 as well, that suggests that the act of boycott is a way of fairness and justice resumption.
The second result reveals that there is no significant influence between pharmaceutical industries’ corporate image and the boycott intention for over-the-counter-drugs. Thus, hypothesis 3 that suggests “boycott intention is greater when corporate image of the boycotted industry is more negative” has been not consistent with the result.
The third outcome, in line with hypothesis 4, states that the level of anger lessens the reaction between perceived immorality and boycott intention. In other words, the higher (or lower) the level of anger the higher (or lower) boycott intention is. Therefore, hypothesis 5B has been approved, which indicates that if pharmaceutical industries’ corporate image is more positive, then the intention of joining communication boycott becomes less.
The results also emphasize that there is no relationship between the emotions such as anger and the pharmaceutical corporate image. That is the effectiveness of anger and boycott intention does not depend on the corporate image. Hence, hypothesis 5A has been opposed. Finally, the last result of this study contrast hypothesis 6, which states that when there is requiring of medication the involvement of boycott is discouraged.
Apparently, the analysis contradicts this hypothesis. As it is been shown that there is no match between the need for medication and the boycott intention, this result is not well proved however, since it is reported that the group of respondents are not in serious need for medication probably that resulted in rejecting hypothesis 6.
Strength and weaknesses of the study
This study shows how pharmaceutical companies serving drugs over the counter cause’s negative reactions by German consumers. And also they have to deal with getting used to the boycott communication. All studies should have limitations; first, this study made sure that the drugs on the counter should be eliminated.
Second, the study concentrated on the fixed behavior which still doesn’t have to do with the actual behavior. Third, the results may be misleading because of the influence of concerns related to social desirability which may have made respondents exaggerate their opinion to boycott the pharmaceutical industries.
Generally, pharmaceutical companies unable to control direct affective response to wrong commercial conduct, such as anger cause by animal experimentation. That’s why pharmaceutical companies should stop themselves from communication which will lead to anger. However, the company still can manage to get two positives results. Primarily, pharmaceutical companies should look for a good image for themselves; images that would make them look good and let the negative effects of boycotts to get reduced.
Also it’s good for a pharmaceutical company to become independent or positive corporate social responsibility image as well. Second, pharmaceutical company that would like to make the boycott less should adopt consumer’s opinions of their immorality. But converting from animal experimentation to animal rights is not easily changeable in most cases, because of the government rules and restrictions such as, US food and Drug administration.
Therefore, pharmaceutical companies should always influence consumer’s opinions through communication. Bradford and Garret (1995) also mentioned that some pharmaceutical firms have different type of communication response, but a “no comment” response can give the firm a negative effect. As a consequence, managers of any pharmaceutical firms should always remember that franchises may have a negative effect on the firm’s image as strong boycott opponent.
Occasionally, justifications may be affective, but when activists attack, those reasons may lead to something that was not desirable. There are eight studies open avenues for further research. First, in the future they should analyze whether this study’s findings are allowed in other instances of wrong corporate conduct as well as prescription drugs. Second, they should concentrate on the effects of moral misbehavior devoted by health service workers.
Third, they could change and improve that specific model. Fourth, pharmaceutical firms and health service should know how to control the wrong corporate conducts. Fifth, they should compare the images of the pharmaceutical sectors and individual ones for affecting the consumers boycotting decision. Sixth, team analyses should be guided. Seventh, other responses should be considered. And finally, future researches could see whether calls for boycott should be influenced in pharmaceutical firms for their financial acts.
The usefulness of the result to the marketers or organizational behavior
The journal mentioned that the H1 gave a positive and direct effect of the anger about animal experimenting which leads to boycott for the pharmaceutical industry. Anger tends to be an affective basis to boycott intention.
This result shows that’s observed dishonesty of animal testing has an effect on target to join a boycott against the pharmaceutical industry as well as to retain in boycott communication which lead to H2 which tells us that boycotting shows a meaning to keep equality and equity.
But in H3 in mention that the image has no effect on the intention to join boycott over the counter drugs. However, H4 displays a response when it comes to anger as well as H5b. Hence, the usefulness of the result shows us that anger which is a behavior can have an effect of the marketers because it can affect the boycotting of the drugs.
As a consequence, they already want to discontinue by permitting any pharmaceutical firms to sell on-the-counter-drugs because they feel that this action is immoral. Since customers are furious and are demonstrating an increased level of antagonism, boycotting drugs which also relates to animal experimentations, which will definitely result in as a useful source to protest against all the firms by boycotting.
As mentioned earlier, the strength and weaknesses of the study, there seems to be myriad amount negative sides on the drugs which dominated over positive factors of the study. Therefore, it is not going to be convenient for the marketing. Normally, they are attempting to help firms in being more precautious and less vulnerable to treacherous boycotting and to reevaluate their practices regarding animal experimentations.