Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications
Introduction
– Defined the word nanomaterial
– What is nanomaterial technology, or nanotechnology?
– Theoretical considerations of nanoparticles
Body
– Definition of biomedical field
– How nanomaterials are reshaping biomedical technology?
– Examples of nanomaterials applications in biomedical field
– Nanoparticle-related heat transfer phenomenon and its application in biomedical fields
Conclusion
– Advantages of nanomaterial in the current biomedical field
– How did nanotechnology saved people lives in the meantime
– Current challenges
Solution
Abstract
The paper discusses nanomaterials and their contribution to technology over the last 30
years. It explains the theoretical considerations of the nanoparticles, showing their physical and
chemical properties and how they relate to biochemical activities. Nanomaterials have had a
great impact in the biomedical field. The paper discusses the contributions of nanomaterials in
biomedical technology including hyperthermia, gene separation, prosthodontics and protein
existence in human beings. The paper discusses how heat transfer occurs in nanomaterials and
how this knowledge has been used in different fields including biomedicine. Nanomaterials have
had a great impact in therapy and drug administration helping in treatment of many diseases.
This advancement has been coupled with challenges that arise during its research and
development.
Introduction
Define the word nanomaterial
Nanomaterials can be defined as chemical materials having various dimensions
mthat are produced through nanotechnology and are used at a very small scale. According to
Kumar, et al, (2014, p. 16), nanomaterials are a growing concern as a trend as they have both
positive and negative effects on the environment and specifically on human beings. As a topic,
nanomaterials may not be understood in relation to what they may cause to human health
especially with the recent rapid advancement in technology. Nanomaterials can be subdivided
into different groups, one of these being nanocomposites. The formation of these materials could
be viewed in various dimensions whereby some are naturally formed, manufactured and others
are incidentally formed through anthropogenic processes.
What is nanomaterial technology, or nanotechnology?
Wen (2013, p. 1171-1172), describes nanotechnology as an applicable technological
innovation to manipulate matter with consideration to the minimum mechanical effect. The
delivery of drugs and the general biomedical field has therefore adopted a new trend which is
nanotechnology. The positive achievements of nanotechnology can be viewed as improvement to
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 3
the health and life standards in the society. For instance, the chances of detecting diseases are
likely to improve and with better methods of treating such diseases hence the possible reduction
in human suffering. Nanotechnology is found to have applications for all possible treating
processes including antimicrobials to kill or prevent the growth of disease-causing
microorganisms. However, studies imply that there could be possible unforeseen negative effects
of this technology in the recently generation of applications such as biomaterials.
Theoretical considerations of nanoparticles
Particles that are 1-100 nanometers in size that can be expressed as whole units in
nanotechnology are referred to as nanoparticles. Two stages are involved in the process of
heating nanoparticles, that is, directly heating the nanoparticles and ultimately to the externally
surrounding fields. The flow of heat could take either of the following two modes; continuous
and discontinuous, with the continuous mode being applicable to ultrasound, RF hyperthermia
and among others (Wen, 2013, p. 1173). A susceptor material can be conductive in which case
the heat is generated through currents or magnetic whereby a micro structural alignment process
is resultant.
Discontinuous heat mode on the other hand, resembles the forms laser and ablative and
can also be termed as “eddy current heating”, specific for nonmagnetic susceptors. Solid
particles are heated at high temperatures into liquid and later gaseous particles to release thermal
energy, which is then used to cause thermal effects to surrounding tissues or particles. Increase in
relative temperature occurs in one phase and a decrease happens in another due to the heat
transfer between nanoparticles and the surrounding, (Wen, 2013, p. 1175). In this case, adverse
effects that may cause collateral damage are likely to be experienced on the surrounding tissues
both malignant and health cells included. Change in the heat intensity level leads to slower or
faster heat exchange process due to the significant reduction in thermal energy in the process.
Definition of biomedical field
Medical practice has been in existence from the historical times to the present times
because of the various changes in the environmental factors. Medicine relates in many ways to
knowledge in biological processes and terminologies such that the existence of medical practices
would not be complete without proper information on biological background. The term
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 4
biomedical field is a broad phrase that expresses the interconnection between the practices of
medicine through biological processes. Biomedical field has undergone changes in terms of
technological innovation both through machines and chemical compositions. Medical
practitioners have carried out studies to come up with biological procedures to help inhibit the
growth of hazardous cells or microorganisms and the ultimate elimination of such cells.
How are nanomaterials reshaping biomedical technology?
The technological growth in methods of treating diseases and elimination of disease
causing microorganisms can be said to be facilitated by the existence and production of
nanomaterials. The chemical compositions of nanomaterials have availed the likelihood for the
generation and maintenance of energy that limits the chances for microorganisms to thrive.
Negative effects of nanomaterials that may be applicable to health cells also lead to the need for
newer and friendlier biomedical technology. Ultrasonography, has led to the achievement of
advantages such as safety of other health cells and low costs which is a positive development in
the biomedical sector (Liu, Kiessling, and Gätjens, (2010, p. 51).
Facilitation in Drug or Gene Delivery
According to Yadava, and Singhb, (2012), drug molecules should be available in the
body for enough period of time to keep the body safe from contracting diseases. Nanoengineered
devices are developed based on lipid and polymers nanoparticles to improve drug distribution
through all cells. Drug delivery has reduced the intensity in the problem of damage to untargeted
tissues through application of heat energy but instead bring useful implications health wise. The
economic effect of this new biomedical technology is experienced as friendlier than before due
to the resultant therapeutic efficiency. Biocompatibility is an important characteristic that is
studied before the application of drugs and this is made possible through the delivery of drugs.
Studies for therapies requiring bone formation that are carried out revealing that chitosan
nanoparticles could be responsible for this development. Chitosan has also been found to have
capability to correct dental carries that occur at an early stage as explained by Virlan, et al,
(2016, p. 207).
The use of carbon nanotubes in the drug delivery process has as well been applicable in
therapy sessions for cancer treatment. Development in biomedical studies has also been a
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 5
resultant feature since more researches and innovations on how more improvements can be done
to drug delivery systems are carried out. Apart from the delivery of drugs through cells and
tissues, delivery of genes that are to be inherited by various cells is conducted through the
nanotubes, (Liu, Kiessling, and Gätjens, 2010, p. 51). Genes delivered are stabilized through
nanotechnological processes which means that the advancement in biomedical technology
creates possibilities for the passing of genes from new cells to the next ones. Among the biggest
advantages of this process is that these genes produced will carry immunity for the cells and
tissues as they are stronger than the mother cells, (Kostarelos, et al, 2007, p. 108-113). Release of
encapsulated drugs that kill cells causing tumors is also viewed as a biomedical technology
development for which there can be said to have a positive reshaping. Biomedical researchers
have also developed genetic properties that control the chances of disease contraction by cells
Growth Inhibition and Elimination of Cancerous Cells
Cytotoxic atomic oxygen that is generated in biomedical processes is introduced to
cancer cells so as to obliterate these cells. According to Wen, (2013, p. 1171); Yadava, and
Singhb, (2012), a special dye used is responsible for protecting health tissues but destroying
cancer cells, which is advantageous as compared to the application of heat in this process. In the
process of treating cancer through this method however, other body organs are affected and
better adapted substances are created so as to solve the resultant problem and inhibit cancer cells
at the same time. The implication is that harmless substances and methods of treating diseases
are invented to reshape biomedical technology in safer and cheaper ways. (Liu, Kiessling, and
Gätjens, 2010, p. 51; Christiansen, et al, 2011) Carbon nanotubes are also foreseen as future
facilitators in the treatment of cancer through their capacity to destroy cells.
Nanoparticles are used in the delivery of drugs as shipping agents, for example, in the
treatment of cancer as illustrated in the figure 1. The mechanism that is used in establishing this
task is the application of heat on the specific nanoparticle to release the relevant chemical or drug
that will in turn act on the malignant cells. Clearly, it can be observed that nanoparticles have a
variety of functions such as drug release, imaging, diagnosis, treatment and therapy all at once.
Possible damage on normal untargeted cells should be a general fear as a disadvantage due to the
extreme heat exerted on the body especially the application of exothermic heat.
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 6
To counter the problem of adversely affecting health cells, it is necessary to use indirect
heat so as to administer noninvasive treatment and this are probably the magnetic nanoparticles.
Alternatively, injection of treatment drugs can be done directly to the malignant cells so that the
treatment will be localized on the relevant problem-causing cells. The temperature level of cells
and effective nanoparticles may affect the level at which treatment upon cells will be effective,
(Wen, 2013, p. 1173). Clinical practices such as ultrasound is also a product of the activities that
can be done through the use of nanoparticles to facilitate protection of health tissues during the
operation.
Figure 1
(Wen, 2013, p. 1172)
Forecasting Of Protein Existence and Composition in Human Beings
Examination of the existing proteins in a cell is important in the decision making process
on what composition of substance to be used in the recovery process of relevant cells
(Armentano, et al, 2011, p. 541-550; Bououdina, et al, 2013, p.8; Chandler, 2014, p. 25-29)
Reshaping the biomedical field into introducing mechanisms that will cater for the need of
obtaining information on chemical composition of the relevant cells so as to prevent alteration of
important properties in health cells is evident. Investigation on the materials found in a cell helps
in the determination of non-contaminants for helpful cells that can destroy malignant cells hence
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 7
the growing urgency for devices and chemicals that will help identify the specifications of
cellular compositions. For example, the findings on the specific dye that inhibits growth of
cancer cells and is harmless on other cells facilitated safe treatment of cancer. Early prognosis
and diagnosis of diseases is made possible through the detection of faults in the cellular
compositions, which is a major reshaping in biomedical technology, (Chandler, 2014, p.26-27).
Technical and physical knowledge on how to use combinations of chemicals that can be used to
treat various conditions is also a major development in the technology of biomedicine
The Connection between Biomedical Technology and the Environment
The relationship between biological processes and the environment is one with close
relation whereby the decline in the positive factors of one results in the dispute in factors of the
other. Biological processes such as photosynthesis lead to the production of oxygen which is
used by inhabitants of the earth. Constituents of the earth such as clean water can be recycled for
a variety of uses (Das, and Mandal, 2015, p. 1999-2002). The effects felt globally such as global
warming owing to the lifestyle changes are witnessed due to the irresponsibility of humans in
relation to positive biomedical practices such that the high technological advancements are used
to cause danger. In this case, it is evident that biomedical technology should be reshaped to have
stronger positive effects to eradicate health losses.
Biomedical Developments That Combine the Processes of Diagnosis and Therapies
The combination includes the process of drug delivery as a system phase, where the
detection of cancer cells is involved. Tests conducted to examine the possible existence of tumor
cells are held through the use of biological substances and these cells are found to be existent.
The process of delivering medicine in the therapeutic procedure that is carried out leads to
successful destruction of the cancer cells which on successive tests are found to be finally non-
existent, (Vivero-Escoto, and Huang, 2011, p. 3888-3927). The implication of this study is that
biomedicine is developing simple time-saving and economical methods of diagnosing diseases
and successfully treating the diseases in a short period of time which means a positive reshaping
in the biomedical technology.
Nanomaterial Application in Biomedical field
Magnetic Nanoparticles
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 8
Magnetic nanoparticles contain properties that make them stable in water at a pH of 7,
room temperature and physiological environment. Joining nanoparticles with iron oxides gives
them stable magnetic response and unique optical properties, ((Huang, S. H., & Juang, R. S.,
2011).
Enzyme immobilization allows re-using of the same enzyme in industries. The
immobilization process involves breaking enzyme bonds; covalent and non-covalent. Non-
covalent bonds include hydrogen bonds and electrostatic bonds; they are simpler to break but
weak. The immobilized enzymes have little support for the separated enzymes and amino acids.
Magnetic nanoparticles allow for specific separation of enzymes using a magnetic field. The
immobilized enzymes have strengthened surface area that makes stronger bonds to other larger
molecules, (Huang, S. H., & Juang, R. S.,2011).
Figure 2
Huang, S. H., & Juang, R. S. (2011).
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 9
Prosthodontics
Prosthodontics is a part of oral medicine that deals with fixing dental defects and tooth
loss through dentures. Dentures are made from metal, resins and ceramic. A good denture
displays certain characteristics; good biocompatibility, high strength, fracture resistance,
reparability, corrosion resistance, non-allergic reactions to the patient and anti-plague adhesion.
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is a common form of resin used in making dentures. They
have good denture properties but lack in strength, fracture resistance, and microbial resistance.
Titanium oxide nanoparticles are strengthened by the mechanical qualities of the PMMA . Nano-
zarcona oxide particles increase its strength and ductility. Ceramics are brittle, glass ceramics are
reinforced with nanoparticles which makes them more resistant to fractures. Metallic titanium
alloys are corrosive, causes allergies and has low biocompatibility, nanophase metals are
enhanced to be more adhesive on the soft tissue and reduces attachment of oral streptococci,
(Wang, W., et al, 2015, p, 3).
Drug Delivery
Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are coated with polymers to make them stable and
prevent disintegration in a biological system. Common cancer treatments include chemotherapy,
surgery, and stem cell therapy among others. Chemotherapy is used where cancer cell are spread
out. The drugs used are spread out all over the body reducing effectiveness as cancer cell are not
directly targeted and may receive low concentrations of the drug. The drug delivery method also
damages healthy cells. Synthetic polymer nanoparticles and magnetic nanoparticles are among
ways to accurately deliver nanosize drugs directly to cancer cells and tissues to destroy them.
MNPs are structured to target specific tumors cells by applying a magnetic field directly. The
process has little damage on healthy cells and is not affected by mononuclear phagocyte system.
MNPs can target malignant cancer cells and kill them. Cancer cells can be killed by temperatures
between 42 0 – 45 0 , healthy cells can survive these temperatures. MNPs target cancer cells and are
delivered in controlled amounts. MNPs can be injected to tumor cell, absorbed through cellular
intake where tumor cells are concentrated.
Nanoparticles Application in Imaging
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 10
Imaging involves observing cellular and molecular function and characteristics. The size
of nanoparticles allows technology to control their physical and chemical properties at nanoscale.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) involves use of longitudinal (T1) relaxation and transeverse
(T2) relaxation. Iron oxide nanoparticles are used in T1 and T2 processes. Iron oxides
nanoparticles are made through precipitation in basic solutions; however, the process results in
water soluble but deformed crystals. Decomposing the elements through heat allows uniform
crystals to be formed that are monodispered. The oxides are not water-soluble but can layered
with amphiphilic polymers to make them hydrophilic, (Liu, Z., Kiessling, F., & Gätjens, J., 2010,
p. 6). Solid silica nanoparticles (SNPs) are hydrophilic, compatible with biological materials and
physically versatile. Their process can be easily controlled and they are chemically stable.
Silver Nanoparticles (Ag Nps)
Ag NPs can be used to make medicine in treatment of wound. The silver nanoparticles
however have by affinity to proteins, causing protein corona that alters the structural composition
of the protein making immune diseases. Protein corona also forms amyloid like fabrications that
cause degeneration of neurons. This affixation is reduced by coating Ag NPs with β-hydroxy
propylcyclodextrins (β-HPCD-Ag NPs). The process was examined using samples of red blood
cells (RBCs). The results showed that less haemoglobin affixed on the silver nanoparticles. The
secondary structure of protein does not haemolyse with expose to β-HPCD-Ag NPs due to the
cover offered by β-HPCD, the silver nanoparticle however, retains its functional characteristics
and is able to perform effectively, (Das, S. K., & Mandal, A. B. (2015).
Figure 3
(Das, S. K., & Mandal, A. B. (2015).
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 11
Nanoparticle-Related Heat Transfer Phenomenon
In heating nanoparticles in a controlled environment, two processes occur: energy is
transferred from external surrounding and energy moves from the nanopartlicle suspension to the
surrounding. Nanoparticles gain heat through two methods; diffusion where low heat is passed
with no interruption constantly in a low heat fluctuation environment and discontiously with high
heat fluctuation environment. Radio frequency drug delivery with magnetic nanoparticles and
ultrasound heating uses the first method while the second occurs in laser related surroundings. A
radio frequency microwave spectrum introduces an electromagnetic field, if the material is a
good conductor current flows generating heat. Passing heat through a magnetic material involves
magnetization rotation and domain wall motion. Domain wall motion results in loss of heat, the
process can be reversed. Continuously repeating this process consumes a lot of power due to re-
heating. Laser heating involves passing laser pulses through particles with high speed. Electrons
in the particle absorb energy from the phonons, the kinetic energy in the electrons make them
scattered. The electrons have an unbalanced distribution of energy. Energy transfer reduces
between electrons and protons due to increased distance of contact, this increases the lattice
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 12
temperature and the particle temperature increases. Particles begin to transfer energy and phonon
bind with other phonons causing a release in heat that dispels heat across a particle–medium
boundary to an adjacent shell. The sudden temperature increase at the boundary of the particle
and the liquid reduces as a heat balance is reached. An addition of nanoparticles in such a
mixture at the beginning of a similar experiment would show lower disparity in the level of
temperature in the particle and its surrounding. Nanoparticles have smaller sizes and high heat
conductivity (Wen, D., 2013).
Nanomaterials in Welding
Nanopowder (a compound like titanium nitride combined with nanoparticles) applied in
joints gives stronger binds when using laser welding. The structure that form through normal
welding is needle-dendritic while use of nanopowder leads to formation of quasi-equiaxed and
finely dispersed formations. The self-organization phase of the structure the presence of
nanopowder changes the morphology of the grains. The non-metallic components do not reduce
the strength of the metallic materials, the new structure has greater tensile strength and relative
elongation. Nanomaterials introduced in alloys at high temperatures allow for better management
of the micro, macro structure and the physical mechanical properties of alloys. This can be seen
electro-slag welding of nickel chromium alloys that are creep-resisting, where its titanium cardon
nitride nanoparticles are treated into the alloy at high temperatures to act as solidification points,
(Kuznetsov, M. A., & Zernin, E. A., 2012).
Ultrasonic bulk heating
Figure 4
Wen, (2013).
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 13
The diagram shows the effect on the heating temperature on a base fluid, containing gold
nanoparticles concentrations, was exposed to 60kHz of ultrasonic heating. The temperature
increases with increase in gold nanoparticles. The increase in temperature is not fully accredited
to the high thermal conductivity of gold nanoparticles, it is suggested that the nanoparticles may
act as nuclei for cavitation bubble generation and therefore increase the rate of ultrasound
absorption (Wen, D., 2013).
Nanoparticle Heating in the Biomedical Field
Heat can be introduced in the body to kill harmful cells directly or indirectly. Directly
applying heat through radio frequency probes destroyed cancer cells but all had harmful
irreversible effect on healthy cells. Radio frequency spectrum, electromagnetic fields, light and
ultra sound are among the indirect, non-intrusive ways to deliver heat. These method target
specific cells by using thermal energy passed through magnetic nanoparticles. The specific
absorption rate (SAR) of the RF frequency varies, low frequencies allow heat to pass in the body
with no side effects, but nanoparticles are heated. These methods are effective to reach both
shallow and deep-rooted cancer cells. However, the method is theoretically conducive but
presents several challenges. The magnetic nanoparticles have low SAR therefore when exposed
to heat the do not regulate their temperature to the specific one given by the RF spectrum,
phonons couple and this causes an additional increase in temperature. This process also exposes
cells to electromagnetic exposure and increases the chances of re-growth of cancer cells. Gold
nanoparticles (GNP) have high SAR when exposed to photo thermal therapy due to its
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 14
characteristic physical properties, though it works better under visible light. Modifying the
surface structure of the GNP may enable its wavelength resonance to be applied in a near-
infrared spectrum. The process can however still be applicable in surface tissues, (Wen, D.,
2013).
Advantages on Nanomaterials in the Current Biomedical Field
Bioavailability
This is ability to deliver drugs to the specific place where they are needed and use the
best platform for absorption. The nanosized particle achieved these goals due to their size,
stability and water solubility, (Yadava, P., & Singhb, R., 2012). Blood cells surrounding tumor
cells are more concentrated and wider and can support nanoparticles transporting anti cancer
drugs. The drug can be concentrated to these areas specifically and delivered in monitored
dosage. Monitoring the drug dosage avoid harming healthy cell surrounding the tumor cells.
Ultrasound
Research in the field of response of nanomaterials to heat, has made use of ultrasound in
treatment of tumors located deep in the body in organs such, kidneys and lungs. The process has
lower cost and is easy to use, it uses high intensity ultrasound to reach cells that are damaged
without causing collateral damage to healthy cells.
Dental Health Care
Nanoparticles have been able to significantly improve materials use in Prosthodontics,
eliminating most of their weaknesses through introduction of nanosized particles in resins,
ceramics, and the different metals used. The combination increases strength, hardness, corrosion
resistance, allergic reactions and plague attraction. Nanohydroxyyapatite is a Nanomaterial that
is effective in mandibular bone reconstruction. The nanoparticles show four advantageous
properties; they are biocompatible hence have low chances fro allergic reactions, provide low
chances of infections after the procedure, they can be used as scaffolds to manufacture new
bones and provide bone repair through biomineralization, (Wang, W., et al, 2015, p. 8).
How Have Nanomaterials Saved Lives
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 15
In the recent years, the DNA structure of diseases has changed over the years and some
diseases have become drug resistant to current forms of drugs. The development of
nanotechnology has allowed creation of drugs that are modified and combined with
nanoparticles. These functionalized nanoparticles are directed to the cells that are unhealthy and
release drugs directly. The release of drugs is controlled and prevents destruction of healthy
cells. Patients suffering from cancer benefit greatly from this nanomaterials especially with
improvement of chemotherapy treatment. The treatment has fewer side effects and is less
destructive on healthy body part. It is time efficient and inexpensive. Nanomaterials allows for
selective gene replacement. Functionalized nanoparticles are designed to separate abnormal
genes from healthy ones in a process that is time efficient and has little side effect. This
milestone will help in treatment of genetic diseases by separating degenerative genes from
healthy ones. Combining nanomaterials in oral surgery has helps many fix bone defects, normal
surgey has presented many problems in introducing foreign materials like ceramic, metal and
keratin in the body. The body often rejects the structures, nanoparticles are combing with
dentures to make them more biocompatible, stronger and more resistant to oral bacteria like oral
streptococci.
Challenges in the field of nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is a new field, it may possess many opportunities in the biomedical
field, but they are limited. First, the technology is being developed and its limits tested, the
process is costly and some of the materials required for its development are still being invented.
Secondly, nanotechnology use in vivo required a series of test to ensure that is meets all required
thresholds to be used hospitals. There have been test showing that nanoparticles that combine
with proteins form protein corona and can advance to from genetic diseases, (Das, S. K., &
Mandal, A. B., 2015). The ability of nanomaterials to operate at such a small scale due to their
size has to be proven safe. Their size allows them to enter the bloodstream and even the
extracellular fluid. This may alter cellular function and lead to greater medical challenges.
Nanomaterials have existed in nature in all its duration, research into nanomaterials is still in
young, more in depth understanding of the properties and application of the technology is
needed, (Chandler, D. L., 2014, p. 24)
NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 16
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